Zoonotic diseases are infections transmissible between animals and humans. This report is an annual description of zoonotic diseases relevant to the Netherlands. Included are reporting trends of notifiable zoonotic diseases, noteworthy research and case studies. This report also focuses on a specific theme related to zoonotic diseases. This year, the theme is One Health collaboration. Similar to previous years, no noteworthy changes were observed in 2017 with regard to most notifiable zoonotic diseases. Foodborne bacteria (Campylobacter, Listeria monocytogenes, Salmonella and STEC) again make up the largest proportion of zoonotic infections this year. The number of cases of leptospirosis is still high, although last year's decline continues. The number of patients with an orthohantavirus-infection has increased further. In 2016, Brucella canis was observed for the first time in dogs in the Netherlands and again in 2017 several imported dogs tested positive for this bacterium. Besides Chlamydia psittaci, several other zoonotic Chlamydia species exist. From 2013, six Dutch patients were diagnosed with C. caviae pneumonia and in 2017, one with C. felis conjunctivitis. Results from a research project about antibiotic resistance (ESBLAT), show that ESBL-genes are most exchanged between people, instead of between animals and humans. Bacteria containing ESBL-genes are able to produce enzymes that prevent antibiotics from working; the bacteria become resistant. The resistance spreads because the genes can be passed on to other bacteria. The Theme of this year is 'Integrated approach of zoonoses; challenges and applications of One Health collaboration'. To signal, assess and control zoonotic infections, there is a strong need for collaboration between different disciplines, based on the principle of One Health. The central idea of One Health is that humans, animals and the environment are interconnec­ted and influence each other. Described is how the One Health principle has evolved. In addition, two recent outbreaks of zoonoses, Seoul in rats and Brucella canis in dogs, show how One Health cooperation in the Netherlands is organised.

The number of tuberculosis patients in the Netherlands decreased considerably in 2017, after rises in the two preceding years. There were 787 TB patients reported in 2017, compared to 862 in 2015 and 887 in 2016. Nearly three quarters of the total number of TB patients in the Netherlands come from areas where the incidence of this infectious disease is high, such as Africa and Asia. As in previous years, the largest group of patients came from Eritrea (94), followed by Morocco (73) and Somalia (58). Various factors led to the drop. These include the decreasing influx of immigrants in 2016 and 2017 as well as the falling incidence of tuberculosis in the Dutch population. <br> <br>Tuberculosis is caused by a bacterium and cases must be notified to the Municipal Public Health Services in the patient's place of residence. The majority of patients (eighty per cent) went to the doctor of their own accord; ten per cent were found by screening high-risk groups and eight per cent by examining people in the surroundings of contagious patients. Detecting and treating infected contacts as early as possible can avoid having more people catch tuberculosis. Tuberculosis may be contagious, for example if it is in the lungs, but this is not necessarily the case. Its most infectious form (open tuberculosis) was observed in a quarter of patients in 2017. <br> <br>This is shown by the figures for 2017. RIVM reports these figures annually in order to monitor the progress of measures for tackling tuberculosis in the Netherlands. The National Tuberculosis Control Plan 2016-2020 was drawn up to that end in 2016. This plan states for example that all TB patients must be offered HIV testing because HIV infection increases the risk of tuberculosis. The percentage of TB patients in the Netherlands who have been tested for HIV rose from 28 in 2008 to 75 in 2017. In 2017, 23 TB patients were infected with HIV. <br> <br>Another of the targets of the National Tuberculosis Control Plan 2016-2020 is that 90 per cent of TB patients should complete their medicinal treatment, i.e. not stopping it too early. This is important because successful treatment involves patients taking a number of medicines at the same time for a long period of time (for six months or more). This objective was achieved in 2016 for patients who were not resistant to the key medicine against tuberculosis (rifampicin). The treatment results for 2017 are not yet known. <br> <br>When the TB bacterium is insensitive to rifampicin, this is known as rifampicin-resistant tuberculosis. A complex and lengthier course of treatment is then required. Over the last five years, the number of such patients in the Netherlands has fluctuated between ten and twenty. There were eleven in 2017. <br>

The number of tuberculosis patients in the Netherlands decreased considerably in 2017, after rises in the two preceding years. There were 787 TB patients reported in 2017, compared to 862 in 2015 and 887 in 2016. Nearly three quarters of the total number of TB patients in the Netherlands come from areas where the incidence of this infectious disease is high, such as Africa and Asia. As in previous years, the largest group of patients came from Eritrea (94), followed by Morocco (73) and Somalia (58). Various factors led to the drop. These include the decreasing influx of immigrants in 2016 and 2017 as well as the falling incidence of tuberculosis in the Dutch population. Tuberculosis is caused by a bacterium and cases must be notified to the Municipal Public Health Services in the patient’s place of residence. The majority of patients (eighty per cent) went to the doctor of their own accord; ten per cent were found by screening high-risk groups and eight per cent by examining people in the surroundings of contagious patients. Detecting and treating infected contacts as early as possible can avoid having more people catch tuberculosis. Tuberculosis may be contagious, for example if it is in the lungs, but this is not necessarily the case. Its most infectious form (open tuberculosis) was observed in a quarter of patients in 2017. This is shown by the figures for 2017. RIVM reports these figures annually in order to monitor the progress of measures for tackling tuberculosis in the Netherlands. The National Tuberculosis Control Plan 2016-2020 was drawn up to that end in 2016. This plan states for example that all TB patients must be offered HIV testing because HIV infection increases the risk of tuberculosis. The percentage of TB patients in the Netherlands who have been tested for HIV rose from 28 in 2008 to 75 in 2017. In 2017, 23 TB patients were infected with HIV. Another of the targets of the National Tuberculosis Control Plan 2016-2020 is that 90 per cent of TB patients should complete their medicinal treatment, i.e. not stopping it too early. This is important because successful treatment involves patients taking a number of medicines at the same time for a long period of time (for six months or more). This objective was achieved in 2016 for patients who were not resistant to the key medicine against tuberculosis (rifampicin). The treatment results for 2017 are not yet known. When the TB bacterium is insensitive to rifampicin, this is known as rifampicin-resistant tuberculosis. A complex and lengthier course of treatment is then required. Over the last five years, the number of such patients in the Netherlands has fluctuated between ten and twenty. There were eleven in 2017.

The abundance of silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) in consumer products has led to their environmental release and therefore to concern about their impact on human health. The ingestion of AgNP-contaminated soil from urban sites is an important exposure pathway, especially for children. Given the limited information on oral bioaccessibility of soil Ag, we used a physiologically based extraction test (PBET) to evaluate the bioaccessibility of AgNPs and AgNO3 from soil digestion. The AgNPs underwent several biochemical transformations, including their simultaneous dissolution and agglomeration in gastric fluid followed by the disintegration in the intestinal fluid of the agglomerates into NPs containing silver and chlorine. Therefore, Ag-containing soil exposed the intestine to nanoparticulate Ag in forms that were structurally different from the original forms. The bioaccessibility of AgNPs (0.5 ± 0.05%-10.9 ± 0.7%) was significantly lower than that of AgNO3 (4.7 ± 0.6%-14.4 ± 0.1%), as a result of the lower adsorption of nanoparticles to soil residues during the digestive process. For the soils tested, the bioaccessibility of AgNPs increased with decreasing clay contents and lower pH. By identifying the soil properties that control AgNP bioaccessibility, a more efficient and accurate screening can be performed of soil types that pose the greatest health risk associated with AgNP exposure.

Commuting routes with natural features could promote walking or cycling for commuting. Commuting through natural environments (NE) could have mental health benefits as exposure to NE can reduce stress and improve mental health, but there is little evidence. This study evaluates the association between NE and commuting, whether active or not, and the association between commuting (through NE), whether active or not, and mental health. We also evaluate the moderating effect of NE quality on the association between NE commuting and mental health.

The National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM) has carried out an exploratory study into new developments and possible risks associated with the use of the so-called amniotic membrane, both in the Netherlands and elsewhere. For decades, the membrane has been used in ophthalmology as a graft to allow damaged corneas to heal. The amniotic membrane is a very thin membrane that is taken from the placenta. Its use is limited in the Netherlands. <br> <br>New developments concerning the amniotic membrane have mainly been described in the international literature. Research has been carried out into repairing damaged tissues by using stem cells obtained from comparable healthy tissue and growing them on amniotic membrane. The membrane with stem cells can then be placed on the damaged tissue. Another development currently being researched is the possibility of using stem cells from the amniotic membrane to repair damage to other tissues, such as muscles. In the Netherlands, amniotic membrane is mainly used to cover damage to the cornea of the eye. <br> <br>The literature reports only a limited number of risks, such as pain, associated with the use of amniotic membrane. As far as is known, in the Netherlands no complications have been reported concerning treatment with amniotic membrane.<br>